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A small toolkit of classes that support lock-free thread-safe
programming on single variables. In essence, the classes in this
package extend the notion of <tt>volatile</tt> values, fields, and
array elements to those that also provide an atomic conditional update
operation of the form:

<pre>
  boolean compareAndSet(expectedValue, updateValue);
</pre>

<p> This method (which varies in argument types across different
classes) atomically sets a variable to the <tt>updateValue</tt> if it
currently holds the <tt>expectedValue</tt>, reporting <tt>true</tt> on
success.  The classes in this package also contain methods to get and
unconditionally set values, as well as a weaker conditional atomic
update operation <tt>weakCompareAndSet</tt> described below.

<p> The specifications of these methods enable implementations to
employ efficient machine-level atomic instructions that are available
on contemporary processors. However on some platforms, support may
entail some form of internal locking. Thus the methods are not
strictly guaranteed to be non-blocking --
a thread may block transiently before performing the operation.

<p> Instances of classes {@link
edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicBoolean}, {@link
edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger}, {@link
edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicLong}, and {@link
edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReference} each provide access and
updates to a single variable of the corresponding type.  Each class
also provides appropriate utility methods for that type.  For example,
classes <tt>AtomicLong</tt> and <tt>AtomicInteger</tt> provide atomic
increment methods.  One application is to generate sequence numbers,
as in:

<pre>
class Sequencer {
  private final AtomicLong sequenceNumber
    = new AtomicLong(0);
  public long next() {
    return sequenceNumber.getAndIncrement();
  }
}
</pre>

<p>The memory effects for accesses and updates of atomics generally
follow the rules for volatiles, as stated in <a
href="http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/"> The Java Language
Specification, Third Edition (17.4 Memory Model)</a>:

<ul>

  <li> <tt>get</tt> has the memory effects of reading a
<tt>volatile</tt> variable.

  <li> <tt>set</tt> has the memory effects of writing (assigning) a
<tt>volatile</tt> variable.

  <li> <tt>lazySet</tt> has the memory effects of writing (assigning)
  a <tt>volatile</tt> variable except that it permits reorderings with
  subsequent (but not previous) memory actions that do not themselves
  impose reordering constraints with ordinary non-<tt>volatile</tt>
  writes.  Among other usage contexts, <tt>lazySet</tt> may apply when
  nulling out, for the sake of garbage collection, a reference that is
  never accessed again.

  <li><tt>weakCompareAndSet</tt> atomically reads and conditionally
  writes a variable but does <em>not</em>
  create any happens-before orderings, so provides no guarantees
  with respect to previous or subsequent reads and writes of any
  variables other than the target of the <tt>weakCompareAndSet</tt>.

  <li> <tt>compareAndSet</tt>
  and all other read-and-update operations such as <tt>getAndIncrement</tt>
  have the memory effects of both reading and
  writing <tt>volatile</tt> variables.
</ul>

<p>In addition to classes representing single values, this package
contains <em>Updater</em> classes that can be used to obtain
<tt>compareAndSet</tt> operations on any selected <tt>volatile</tt>
field of any selected class.  {@link
edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReferenceFieldUpdater}, {@link
edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicIntegerFieldUpdater}, and {@link
edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicLongFieldUpdater} are
reflection-based utilities that provide access to the associated field
types. These are mainly of use in atomic data structures in which
several <tt>volatile</tt> fields of the same node (for example, the
links of a tree node) are independently subject to atomic
updates. These classes enable greater flexibility in how and when to
use atomic updates, at the expense of more awkward reflection-based
setup, less convenient usage, and weaker guarantees.

<p>The {@link edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicIntegerArray}, {@link
edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicLongArray}, and {@link
edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReferenceArray} classes further
extend atomic operation support to arrays of these types. These
classes are also notable in providing <tt>volatile</tt> access
semantics for their array elements, which is not supported for
ordinary arrays.

<a name="Spurious">
<p>The atomic classes also support method <tt>weakCompareAndSet</tt>,
which has limited applicability. On some platforms, the weak version
may be more efficient than <tt>compareAndSet</tt> in the normal case,
but differs in that any given invocation of the
<tt>weakCompareAndSet</tt> method may return <tt>false</tt>
<em>spuriously</em> (that is, for no apparent reason)</a>.  A
<tt>false</tt> return means only that the operation may be retried if
desired, relying on the guarantee that repeated invocation when the
variable holds <tt>expectedValue</tt> and no other thread is also
attempting to set the variable will eventually succeed.  (Such
spurious failures may for example be due to memory contention effects
that are unrelated to whether the expected and current values are
equal.)  Additionally <tt>weakCompareAndSet</tt> does not provide
ordering guarantees that are usually needed for synchronization
control.  However, the method may be useful for updating counters and
statistics when such updates are unrelated to the other
happens-before orderings of a program. When a thread sees an update
to an atomic variable caused by a <tt>weakCompareAndSet</tt>, it does
not necessarily see updates to any <em>other</em> variables that
occurred before the <tt>weakCompareAndSet</tt>.  This may be
acceptable when, for example, updating performance statistics, but
rarely otherwise.

<p> The {@link edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicMarkableReference}
class associates a single boolean with a reference. For example, this
bit might be used inside a data structure to mean that the object
being referenced has logically been deleted. The {@link
edu.emory.mathcs.backport.java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicStampedReference} class associates
an integer value with a reference. This may be used for example, to
represent version numbers corresponding to series of updates.

<p> Atomic classes are designed primarily as building blocks for
implementing non-blocking data structures and related infrastructure
classes.  The <tt>compareAndSet</tt> method is not a general
replacement for locking. It applies only when critical updates for an
object are confined to a <em>single</em> variable.

<p> Atomic classes are not general purpose replacements for
<tt>java.lang.Integer</tt> and related classes. They do <em>not</em>
define methods such as <tt>hashCode</tt> and
<tt>compareTo</tt>. (Because atomic variables are expected to be
mutated, they are poor choices for hash table keys.)  Additionally,
classes are provided only for those types that are commonly useful in
intended applications. For example, there is no atomic class for
representing <tt>byte</tt>. In those infrequent cases where you would
like to do so, you can use an <tt>AtomicInteger</tt> to hold
<tt>byte</tt> values, and cast appropriately. You can also hold floats
using <tt>Float.floatToIntBits</tt> and <tt>Float.intBitstoFloat</tt>
conversions, and doubles using <tt>Double.doubleToLongBits</tt> and
<tt>Double.longBitsToDouble</tt> conversions.


@since 1.5

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